Enlightenment in Europe &

Revolution in America

1688-1790

Chapter 20

I.          European Thinkers expressed new ideas

          A.          The Enlightenment was also known as the Age of Reason.

                    1.          This period brought together the ideas of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution.

                    2.          All of the ideas of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler must now be based on a sense of reason.  Just saying that the Earth was not the center of the universe was no longer enough!  REASON must be applied to make the best arguments.

          B.          Newton Discovered the Law of Gravity

                    1.          Isaac Newton was born during the Civil War in England in 1642. 

                    2.          He studied at Cambridge University and would eventually teach there!

                    3.          He studied and concluded that the forces of nature affected all things equally.

                    4.          He discovered that the planets were under the same force that Galileo and Kepler had discussed!  Motion of Objects!

                    5.          He called his discovery "gravity".

                    6.          In 1687, he wrote a book called Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.

                    7.          Newton's law became the turning point for investigation in science!!!!!

          C.          The Philosophies Advocated Reason

                    1.          Because of Newton's application of Reason to science many began to apply these same approaches to all aspects of life.

                    2.          They were known as philosophes.  The embodied five major ideals:

                              a.          Reason- Divine force, absence of intolerance, bigotry or prejudice in one's thinking.

                              b.          Nature- Natural=Good and Reasonable, Natural laws of all aspects of life.

                              c.          Happiness-  They wanted well being in this world and misery was not to be tolerated.

                              d.          Progress- Using a scientific approach to reason society could now move forward!

                              e.          Liberty- Through reason these thinkers felt that society could be set free.  They based these ideas and opinions on the Rights that English citizens won in their Bloodless Revolution.  

          D.          Voltaire Combated Prejudice

                    1.          Voltaire was a Frenchman who would revolutionize the Age of Enlightenment.

                    2.          He almost died in infancy and complained of every illness throughout his life!  He would live until he was 84!

                    3.          He was jailed in the Bastille twice for offending King Louis XV and after the second time he fled so that he would not have to suffer through that again.

                    4.          He held a significant grudge against the French monarchy his whole life because of these two imprisonments.

                    5.          After his first stay in the Bastille he was exiled to England for 2 years where he read the works of John Locke!  He loved the ideas of natural rights to all humans and incorporated them into his own writings.

                    6.          He came to praise and love the English government more than his own.

                    7.          In 1734, he had offended one too many times and fearing another imprisonment he fled to the French border!  Later in his years he would move to Switzerland to finish his life and live with                     his niece. 

                    8.          He would champion the Age of Reason/Enlightenment for years to come.

          E.          Salons Were Intellectual Centers

                    1.          Paris was the intellectual and cultural center of the world in the 1700s. 

                    2.          Fashionable social gatherings, known as Salons became the place for enlightened thinkers, artists, musicians, and the wealthy to interact with one another.

                    3.          Women were the organizers of these "parties" and would help the cause of women for many years.

                    4.          Marie Therese Geoffrin was the premier hostess during this time and her "salons" were the center of culture and criticism!

          F.          Diderot Planned an Encyclopedia

                    1.          Geoffrin sponsored one of the greatest undertakings of its time!  The Encyclopedia.

                    2.          This book would bring together the most current information on all types of subject areas.

                    3.          Louis XV was offended by the seventh volume and tried to censor and ban future editions but ws unable!

                    4.          The last volume was finally printed in 1772. 

                    5.          The popularity of this book is still around today under the name of Encyclopedia Brittanica!

          G.          Scientific Revolution Advanced

                    1.          In the 1700s it was fashionable to display scientific inventions in your home.

                    2.          Educated men and women dabbled in science but a select few made significant breakthroughs in every field.

                    3.          Oxygen-1774-pure substance separated from the nasty air and Joseph Priestley discovered it! 

                    4.          Electricity-1752-Benjamin Franklin discovered this with the famous Kite Experiment!  Many others tried this and died from their less than careful experiments. 

                    5.          Geography-1768-James Cook set out to explore and chart the South Pacific.  This had not been done since Magellan in the 1500s.  The Royal Society of London sponsored him.

                    6.          He found Australia, New Zealand, Tahiti and Hawaii.

                    7.          He was killed in 1779 during a fight with Hawaiians.

          F.          New forms dominated Music

                    1.          Baroque Period-Late 1600s to early 1700s.  Ornate, dramatic, complex.

                              a.           Fugue is used when several instruments play one simple melody simultaneously or when there are several melodies that are very similar all at once.

                              b.          Counterpoint is weaving two or more melodies together.  ROUNDS!

                              c.          Bach (1685-1750) and Handel (1685-1759) were the two most famous composers of the Baroque Period.

                    2.          Classical Period lasted from 1750-1820 and was very simple compared to Baroque music.  Unity, clarity, and balance were important.

                              a.          Symphony, Concerto, Sonata

                              b.          Joseph Haydn (b.1732) "father of the symphony"

                              c.          Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) began composing at age 5 and performed for British King George III at 8.  At 12, he wrote his first opera and his operas are noted for brilliance and originality!  The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute are very popular even today!  He died in poverty at the age of 35.

                              d.          Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) began with works like Mozart that were classical and ended his career beginning a new age of Romanticism!  He was deaf for most of his composing career!

Chapter 20

Section 2

II.          Writers Advocated Liberty & Reason

          A.          The Age of Enlightenment focused 3 specific liberties

                    1.          Welfare of Society

                    2.          Freedom of the Individual

                    3.          Happiness of Humanity

          B.          Adam Smith supported free trade (1723-1790)

          1.          He taught at the University of Edinburg

                    2.          Physiocrats-felt that mercantilism was wrong- AS loved their ideas.

                    3.          He agreed with Laissez-faire (leave alone economics)

                    4.          1776 Wealth of Nations (3 economic principles)

                              a.          Law of Self-Interest- buyers and sellers both act for selfish reasons and buyers and sellers gain from the other's selfish motives.

                              b.          Law of Competition- there is natural economic progression when there is normal competition between sellers.

                              c.          Law of Supply & Demand- direct relationship between supply (quantity available) and demand (need/want).  When there is more supply than demand prices drop and when there is more demand than supply prices soar! (Inflation!!)

                              d.          Market Economy- where natural laws are free to operate, plenty of goods would be produced at the lowest prices.  But, if the government interfered in the economy there would be no liberty therefore, no economic progress.

          C.          Montesquieu Advocated Separation of Powers

                    1.          (1689-1755)- Studied Political liberty

                    2.          He believed that Britain was the best-governed country even though he was a Frenchman.

                    3.          Three branches worked best!

                              a.          Executive- King/ministers

                              b.          Legislative- lawmaking body (Parliament)

                              c.          Judicial- judges of courts

                    4.          On the Spirit of Laws (1748)

                              a.          Balance of power is imperative to success.

                              b.          No liberty without checks and balances.

          D.           Rousseau Championed Freedom

                    1.          1712-1778-born in Geneva, fled when 16 to Italy, and then after many jobs went to Paris and was recognized as a premier essay writer!

                    2.          The Social Contract (1762)- "Man is born free, yet everywhere remains in chains."

                    3.           He believed that liberty and justice would thrive in a state where the "general will" of the people was all powerful!

Chapter 20

Section 3

III.          Enlightened Despots Sought Progress

          A.          Enlightened Despotism

                    1.          Rulers who ruled with the ideas of the philosophes.

                    2.          Rulers who based their decisions on progress and

reason.

                    3.          They were absolute rulers who supposedly used their great power for the good of the people that they ruled.

          B.          Frederick II (The Great)

                    1.          Prussian King who began the War of Austrian                                                                                                               Succession in 1740!  --

                    2.          He was born in 1712 and ruled Prussia from 1740-1786.

                    3.          He was very smart and loved Voltaire's writing, so much so that he invited Voltaire to live in his palace for 3 years so that they might talk of philosophy and reason together!

                    4.          They both dressed shabbily but showered each other with compliments.  Their arrangement did not last long because Voltaire did not like reading the pathetic poetry of Frederick!  He tried to escape but was caught and jailed overnight!  He returned to France and called Frederick nasty names!  Frederick returned this lovely favor!

                    5.          He favored ruling well but his actions did not always produce the desired effects.

                    6.          He granted religious freedoms to Catholics and Protestants but discriminated against Polish and Prussian Jews.

                    7.          He still allowed torture and even while admitting it was wrong allowed serfdom to continue.

                    8.          His idea of ruling was one of servitude to the people that he ruled.

          C.          Catherine the Great Ruled Russia

                    1.          Catherine II (The Great) also wrote to Voltaire and ruled as an enlightened despot!

                    2.          He praised her for her attitude and showered her with compliments like Frederick the Great.

                    3.          She was born in 1729 and was a German Princess.  She was sent at age 15 to marry the Grand Duke Peter.  He was Peter the Great's                     grandnephew.

                    4.          Peter was mentally unstable and he was a cruel individual to his own pets and people.

                    5.          Catherine saw this as an opportunity to seize power of the throne of Russia.

                    6.          In 1762, Peter received the throne and within a couple of months had him arrested and took control of the throne herself.  He "Conveniently" died within a short period of time.          

                    7.          In September 1762 she was crowned Catherine II of Russia and reigned for 34 years until 1796.

                    8.          In 1767, she drew a large council together to write a Constitution for Russia. 

                              a.          Stop capital punishment

                              b.          End the use of torture

                              c.          Abolish the use of serfdom

                    9.          She listened to them debate for months and when nothing was accomplished she dismissed them.

                    10.          She truly honored the works of the Enlightenment but did little to reform her peasant's lifestyles.

                    11.          In 1773, Pugachev, claiming to be Peter III, led a rebellion of serfs, peasants and soldiers against Catherine.  They raided manors and burned them for months and even threatened to take over Moscow.  She brutally crushed this revolt with her army.  Pugachev was brought to Moscow in an iron cage and executed for leading the rebellion.

                    12.          She realized that nobles were imperative to her success and she dismissed the reforms for the serfs and gained the noble's support.

                    13.          By the end of her reign 95% of people were working as serfs for the remaining 5%.

                    14.          During her reign she waged war almost constantly to win the ports on the Black Sea.  She won the Crimean Peninsula from the Ottoman Turks and Frederick the Great and Maria Theresa of Austria feared that she would win the strategic straits that led to the Mediterranean Sea from them!

                    15.          Poland was greedily divided up between Austria, Prussia and Russia to avoid more costly wars with the ottoman Turks.  The first maneuver to take part of the land occurred in 1772 and is called the First Partition of Poland.  Two more partitions occurred later until there was no longer a country names Poland.  Poland would not become independent again until after WWI.

                    16.          Catherine lived through all three partitions and greatly increased the size of Russia.  She tried to give Liberty, happiness and wealth to her subjects but was not always successful.

                    17.          She goes down in history as one of the best Russian rulers of all times.  Her sordid love life is mostly untrue and taints a good ruler's name.

Chapter 20

Section 4

IV.          Britain Developed New Forms of Leadership

          A.          England now had because of the Glorious Revolution a Constitutional Monarchy.

                    1.          England's power over the rest of the world was increasing and bringing them fabulous wealth and power.

                    2.          The North American colonies were completely under their control and India was included in that order.

                    3.          In 1707, Scotland and England untied and took the new name of Great Britain.

          B.          Britain was a limited democracy

                    1.          During the 1700s there was a danger of stalemate should the Parliament and the monarchy disagree but the development of the cabinet solved this problem. 

                    2.          This committee represented the majority in Parliament but "advised" the ruler.

                    3.          This started out as a weak group but eventually became one of the most important and durable pieces of the government puzzle!

                    4.          William (William & Mary) decided that the cabinet should be the majority of Parliament to be effective.

                    5.          There was now a powerful link between Parliament and the rulers.

                    6.          When Queen Anne, the last Stuart queen, died she left only a distant relative to take the throne and he was from the German state of Hanover.  Hence the name the Hanoverians!!!!

                    7.          His name was George I and he cared little for England.  He relied heavily on his Prime Minister, the head of the Cabinet, to advise him.  He ruled from 1714-1727.

                    8.          Sir Robert Walpole advised George I and George II carefully.  He was appointed as Lord of the Treasury in 1721.  Walpole was the "unofficial ruler" of England for 20 years!

                    9.          He set the tone for the power of policy-making and instituted the office of Prime Minister!

                    10.          This government was a limited democracy because only about 5% of the population could vote and elect members to Parliament.  A small handful of people ran the government!

          C.          Britain built a Worldwide Empire

                    1.          Colonies became the focus of Britain's energy because of the moneymaking possibilities.

                    2.          After the Seven Year's War ended in 1763 Britain stood alone as the strongest nation in Europe.

                    3.          In India, they expanded their holdings, and in North America they controlled everything east of the Mississippi River.

                    4.          The British West Indies, which included, St. Kitts, Jamaica, and Barbados were so successful for Britain.  Many of these islands are still considered under the "Queen!" 

                    5.          The furs and lumber in Canada drew Britain with a force!

                    6.           When King George III came to power in 1760, the 13 American colonies were prosperous and growing fast!  The population went from 275,000 in 1700 to 1,850,000 in 1760!

          D.          Britain wanted Profitable Colonies

                    1.          The colonies were viewed as a place for money to be made to enrich the homeland and not themselves.  In order to do this tight control was placed on all colonies.

                    2.          The Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 would only allow colonists to sell goods to Britain.

                    3.          Unfortunately, colonists turned to smuggling in order to sell their goods and make money.

                    4.          The enforcement of these two acts was virtually impossible.

          E.          Britain Imposed New Taxes

                    1.          Because of the large debt of Britain after the Seven Year's War, king George III saw to it that colonists in America paid taxes to help with that debt. 

                    2.          In 1765, the Stamp Act was passed down in order for colonists to have an official stamp on wills, deeds, and other legal documents.  Newspapers and other printed items were to be stamped.

                    3.          Because the colonists had no representation in Parliament they were outraged to have to pay taxes directly to the King.

                    4.          In Boston and other American cities colonists rioted and yelled "No taxation without representation!" quite loudly!

                    5.          They were so fierce the Act was repealed by Parliament in 1766.

                    6.          Ten years after the Stamp Act debate colonists declared independence from Britain based on the Enlightment writers and especially John Locke!

                    7.          July 4, 1776 the colonies would revolt!!!!!

Chapter 20

Section 5

V.          Americans Create a Republic

          A.          The Declaration of Independence was signed and presented by the colonies on July 4, 1776!

                    1.          Thomas Jefferson listed the grievances against King George III and his abuses.

                    2.          George felt that they were committing treason by this breaking of ties to Britain.

                    3.          The colonists felt that they were justified in rebelling against a tyrant who had broken the Social Contract!

          B.          Growing Hostility Led to War

                    1.          Between 1765 And 1776 King George III imposed more and more taxes on the American colonies and caused them to rebel!

                    2.          In Boston in 1773, Samuel Adams led the Boston Tea Party, to protest the Tea Tax!  British Red Coats were brought in to close the port and occupy the city.

                    3.          In 1774, representatives from all colonies except Georgia, sent delegates to the First Continental Congress and protested the treatment of Boston.  They sent a list of grievances to the King and he barely paid attention to them. 

                    4.          In 1775, the Second Continental Congress met.

                    5.          In Lexington, Massachusetts, militiamen and British Red Coats had a confrontation.  From there the fighting spread to Concord and by the end of the day 73 British were killed and 49 Americans were dead.

                    6.          The Second Continental Congress heard what was going on and voted to raise an army under the command of George Washington, a Virginian. 

                    7.          The "shot heard round the world" began the American Revolution!

          C.          Americans Won Their Independence

                    1.          George Washington and his army were outnumbered and out-equipped but his will to fight and win came shining through!

                    2.          He had many British soldiers and Americans for the British to fight against but because of 5 main reasons he was able to win!

                              a.          The motivation for the Americans was better than the moneymaking motivation for the British soldiers.

                              b.          The Americans used guerilla warfare and the tight rankings of the trained British were confused by this Indian-like method of fighting. 

                              c.          The distance of the British from the homeland was hard on them financially and the tax paying British citizens were tired of the extra taxes                               after a few years.

                              d.          George Washington was a great leader with awe-inspiring courage and endurance.  (Valley Forge/Winter)

                              e.          Benjamin Franklin convinced France to fight with the Americans and they were not necessarily for the Americans as much as against Britain.

                              f.          Spain and several German states declared war on Britain as well!

                              g.          American and French soldiers, together, trapped Lord Cornwallis and his Red Coats at Yorktown and ended the war in 1781!

                              h.          The American colonies received everything east of the Mississippi River and Florida was returned to Spain.  Britain kept Canada.

          D.          The Articles Created a Weak National Government

                    1.          In 1781, the 13 states ratified a constitution, or plan of government.  This plan was known as the articles of Confederation.

                    2.          Under this plan, the states held the most power.  This was done to stop any head of government from obtaining too much power.  It has been said that the government was set up to be unorganized in order to avoid one branch becoming all-powerful.

                    3.          The Congress was the only branch of government and each state had one vote regardless of size.

                    4.          Congress had three main responsibilities and it was not allowed to tax or regulate trade!

                              a.          Declare War

                              b.          Enter into Treaties

                              c.          Coin Money

                    5.          The limits on the national government created many problems.  The states were not granting them money to run themselves and some were even coining their own money!

                    6.          Shay's Rebellion illuminated a serious problem without a national government.  He was a farmer and a Revolutionary War Veteran and when farmers in MA were forced into debt he led a request to have the state lower taxes and issue money so that debts could be repaid.  When they were refused they led a violent rebellion against several courthouses.  Authorities quickly raised an army and crushed the rebellion!

                    7.          His rebellion was short but sent shockwaves across the nation!

          E.          Turning Point in History

                    1.          The Constitutional Convention

                              a.          Washington and James Madison felt the urgent need for a stronger national government.

                              b.          Feb. 1787, the first Constitutional Convention was approved by Congress to revise the Articles of Confederation.

                              c.           May 25, 1787, the Constitutional Convention was held!  55 delegates were present and they were all experienced statesmen.  They were all familiar with Locke and Montesquieu. 

                              d.          Debates over the organization of the government were heated and long but after weeks a compromise was reached.  Two houses and one with representation based on population.  The other would have each state with an equal number of votes. 

                              e.          Slavery and the counting of them for representation was the next serious issue!  The South wanted them counted but the North did not. The Three-Fifths Compromise settled the issue. 

                              f.          The federal system was created and this was a unique and new government based on the principles of the Enlightenment.  Power was divided between the state and national governments.  

                              g.          Federalists and Anti-federalists debated heatedly over this document.  They Anti-federalists proposed a Bill of Rights (amendments) to protect the citizens from a strong national government.   The Constitution was signed in 1787 and illustrated the basic principles of the government's organization and responsibilities.   It became a law when the ninth state ratified it in 1788.