Chapter 23
Section 1
I. European Leaders Sought Stability
A. Meeting of the Congress of Vienna 1814-1815
1. 5 Great Powers of Europe met to celebrate the victory over France and Napoleon and make decisions regarding the standing of Europe.
2. Their decisions and solutions would last for almost 50 years!
3. Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain & France met to shape the countries and retrace borders.
B. Age of Metternich (1773-1859)
1. This suave, debonair Austrian Foreign Minister dominated the Congress of Vienna with his education and
influence over all that attended.
2. He spoke 4 languages, held estates in Germany was the Foreign Minister of Austria and considered himself a
"citizen of Europe" rather than of any one country .
3. He held a great deal of influence over politics and this era is often called the Age of Metternich.
4. He believed in keeping things the same and doing away with the democratic ideals of the French Revolution.
5. He dominated the Congress and his three goals were implemented.
C. The Work of the Congress of Vienna
1. The Congress actually lasted for 9 months when it was to have only lasted ~ one month.
2. Napoleon's escape from Elba had a lot to do with this delay!
3. 3 Major Goals of the Congress
a. The encirclement of France was to keep France from renewing its drive for power. Austrian
Netherlands was united with the Dutch Republic to form the Kingdom of the Netherlands. German Confederation was formed but was largely dominated by Austria. Switzerland was now independent and neutral! The Kingdom of Sardinia was given Piedmont and Genoa.
b. The balance of power tried to weaken France without going too far .
France gave up all territories conquered by Napoleon but retained most of its overseas holdings and its European borders. Austria took some of the Italian states (Lombardy & Venetia). Russia took most of Poland. Prussia took some of the Rhineland. Britain got a good
number of overseas holdings as well. They received the peace they needed to make their overseas trade flourish!
c. Bourbons were restored to power in France and Louis XVIII was returned to the throne.
d. Another war did not occur until 1914 that was significant.
. D. New philosophies arose
1. Conservatives- belief in the traditional forms of government. Constitutional monarchies were favored but many believed in absolute monarchies.
2. Liberals- belief in the early reforms of the French Revolution but were totally opposed to the violence of the Reign of
Terror.
3. Radicals- belief in drastic and, if necessary, violent changes.
E. Conservatives Ruled Europe
1. Britain maintained their constitutional monarchy. Parliament had far more power than the Kings. Only men who owned substantial amount of property were allowed to vote so theirs was a limited democracy!
2. In Eastern Europe governments were much more conservative and maintained absolute rulers.
3. In 1815 the Holy Alliance was formed between Russia, Prussia and Austria. This was an agreement against liberalism. They also promised to help one another if any of them were threatened by reformers/revolutionaries within their countries!
4. France had once again their absolute ruler but the Chamber of Deputies also shared that power. The political environment in France was even less democratic than Britain with fewer of the population having the right to vote! Many of the lower classes were holding on to the ideals of the Revolution and wanted to overthrow the Bourbons. There would be two more revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848.
Chapter 23
Section 2
II. New Ideals Affected Politics and Art
A. Nationalism
1. The belief that a person's loyalty should be to a nation-state. This idea reshaped Europe during the 1800s!
2. History, language and similar traditions link people together as a nation.
3. In 1815, only France and Spain qualified as a nation-state. England had joined Scotland and Ireland to be called Great Britain. None of these three considered themselves similar!
4. Modern nationalism was born during the French Revolution.
5. Many national groups in Europe were ruled by stronger powers. As nationalism grew these exact groups became unhappy with their foreign rulers.
B. Greece Won Independence
1. Greece had been controlled by the Ottoman Empire for centuries and wanted to be free.
2. In 1821 a major revolt broke out. The Ottomans had a weak army and many Europeans who studied Greek culture backed the revolution.
3. Lord Byron, a British poet, actually went to Greece and fought with the nationalists against the Ottomans. He was killed in 1824.
4. The Great Powers took Greece's side and destroyed an Ottoman fleet at ~ the Battle of Navarino in 1827.
5. In 1830 Greece won its full independence and other nationalities sought this sort of freedom.
C. Mazzini Sparked Italian Nationalism
1. Italy had been divided into many states and Northern and Southern Italy were very different; therefore, they were not so strong-willed to unite.
2. In 1805, Napoleon had combined many of the states under a French government. The Congress of Vienna had restored many of the old separate states but the idea of unity survived.
3. Giuseppe Mazzini was an early nationalist of Italy that worked hard to make Italy a nation-state.
4. In 1831, he formed Young Italy and no one over the age of 40 was allowed to join this group. Most of the members were middle-class workers and the idea of unity never really caught on among the masses. He had 60,000 members during the 1830s.
5. Metternich tried to suppress Italian nationalism because Austria, who had been given Lombardy and Venetia, stood to lose part of their empire.
6. Liberals (teachers, lawyers, and business people) were educated and eager to run their government and often led the struggle for more liberal government and the formation of a nation-state.
D. Germany Was Disunited
I. Germany experienced a time in the early 1 800s in which many were interested in pursuing nationalism. In 1815 Germany was divided into 39 separate countries.
2. The German Confederation had been set up by the Congress of Vienna but did little to actually unite Germany. This was the first step to a new nation-state.
3. The Federal Diet met every year but had very little power over the states. It was a sort of Parliament to the German States. There was no way for them to enforce their laws. All 39 states had to approve a law for it to go into effect.
4. The Hapsburgs ruled the people from a dozen different nationalities and they lived mainly around Vienna.
5. Metternich used censorship and arrests to stop nationalism from hurting Austrian power. However, he wound up making the pressure build up against such actions that would lead closer and closer to rebellion.
E. Romanticism Rejected Reason
1. This was a movement that was a reaction against the Enlightenment.
2. Romanticism affected politics, art, literature and music.
3. 4 characteristics of Romanticism
a. Heavy emphasis on feeling over thinking.
b. Emphasis on the individual. (Heroic rebels, King Arthur, Napoleon)
c. Celebration of Nature. (Bronte- Wuthering Heights, George Sand and French countryside stories. )
d. Glorification of the past. Stories, songs and art spoke of knights, outlaws, and past kings.
F. Romanticism Touched Many Arts
1. Music
a. Beethoven- began in classical music but his later symphonies and concertos reflect the freedom of the Romantic Age.
b. Schumann and Mendelssohn also composed similar music that appealed to the heart and soul of listeners.
2. Painting
a. Joseph Turner of England painted with emotion.
b. The German Caspar David Fried rich painted landscapes to convey moods.
c. French Delacroix painted historical pictures to evoke emotion. He painted France as a beautiful woman like "Liberty Leading the People", and "Liberty on the Barricades".
G. Romanticism Sparked Nationalism
1. Artists began to research and publish the folktales and stories that were a part of their nation's history and heritage. The Grimm Brothers published the German folktales and published them in 1812.
2. This evoked a spirit of nationalism.
Chapter 23
Section 3
III. Latin America Won Independence
A. Nationalism spread from Europe to Latin America in the early 1800s.
B. Latin America applies to all of the lands held by Spain, France and Portugal. All of these speak languages that are rooted in Latin!
C. The American Revolution had shown them that an army of rebels could defeat a European government and the ideas of the Enlightenment as well as the French Revolution had come to Latin America by the educated people.
D. Latin America Was Divided
1. Latin American revolutions in the beginning were remarkably like the American Revolution: however, the society was sharply divided by social classes.
a. Peninsulars- people who had been born in Spain and Portugal. They held the most important positions in colonial government.
b. Creoles- people who were born in Latin America but had roots/ancestry in Europe. They were wealthy landowners and were the lesser government officials.
c. Mestizos/Mulattoes- Native Americans and African Americans who had mixed ancestry with Europeans. Some of these owned farms or small businesses but most rented land to work. Most Africans Americans were slaves on large plantations.
d. Native Americans were the lowest class and were treated as slaves. This was the majority of the population and legally they were free but many were treated horribly.
F. Haitian Slaves Revolt
1. The 1st Latin American country to free itself was Haiti on the island of Hispaniola.
2. In 1791 slaves and Mulattoes rose against France.
3. Toussaint L 'Ouverture was an ex-slave who led the rebels and drove the French from the island.
4. In 1802 he was taken prisoner at a peace meeting, sent to France and died in prison. France could not retake the island.
5. In 1804, Haiti set up an independent nation.
G. Creoles wanted independence
1. Creoles began to lead the revolutions in Latin America. They held a long list of grievances against the Peninsulars and the homelands.
a. They were never given high government offices, such as, viceroys.
b. Merchants were only allowed to trade with Spain.
c. The final straw was when Napoleon put his brother on the Spanish throne. They felt NO loyalty to a French King on the throne.
K. Brazil freed itself peacefully
1. In 1807 Napoleon invaded Portugal and the Portuguese royals fled to Brazil. When Napoleon was defeated they returned to Lisbon and the King left his son, Dom Pedro, in command.
2. On September 7, 1822 he called for independence! In December of 1822 he was declared emperor. Now the largest South American country was the only monarchy!
L. Mexican Struggle for Freedom
1. In 1810 Mexico's independence revolt began in the countryside.
2. Father Miguel Hidalgo and a group of Creoles plotted a revolt but the government learned of the plans.
3. Hidalgo was poor, well educated priest and knew deeply of the ideals of the French Revolution.
4. He encouraged his people to revolt against their Spanish masters on September 16, 1810.
5. These peasants did and then made a 200.mile march toward Mexico City.
6. As they continued with farm tools as weapons they picked up many more recruits. As he neared Mexico City he had nearly 60,000 men.
7. He declared an end to slavery and other reforms.
8. Hidalgo was betrayed by one of his officers, captured and executed. He was fighting the Spanish and Creoles.
9. Jose Maria Morelos had fought beside Hidalgo took control and turned out to be a better general.
10. By 1813 he controlled all of Mexico except for the largest cities. Morelos called a Mexican Congress to declare independence, set up a democracy, tax the wealthy, and distribute lands to peasants.
11. Creoles wanted independence but not the social reforms. A Creole officer Augustin de lturbide captured and executed Morelos in 1815 but a few guerillas still fought.
12. In 1820 Spain put a new government in charge and the Creoles feared the Spanish would take their power. They united in support of independence and lturbide made peace with the guerillas. Mexico was independent in 1821!
13. lturbide tried to be emperor but was ousted and when he tried to return in 1824 they shot him!
M. Caudillos Dominated Governments
1. Political strongmen, usually army officers, ruled almost every country as dictators.
2. They did little to help the common people and governments changed hands frequently, usually by force.
3. In 1810 wars began to breakout and there was confusion.
a. Viceroys and their armies remained loyal to Europe.
b. Some Creoles remained loyal.
c. Native Americans and Mestizos fought on both sides and some were forced into armies against their will.
H. Bolivar Struggled in the North
1. Simon Bolivar (1783-1830) was a wealthy Venezuelan Creole. He led the armies in Northern Latin America.
a. He traveled Europe and was familiar with Voltaire and the works of the Enlightenment.
b. He was a writer, fighter, romantic and practical. He was also tireless in the fight for independence.
2. Venezuela declared independence in 1811 with Bolivar at the lead. The struggle was hard and he was forced into exile twice.
3. In 1819 Bolivar built a stronger army and promised to end slavery that won many of the African Americans.
4. He led is 2500 soldiers through the Andes Mountains into Colombia. The Spanish were completely taken by surprise and were defeated!
5. He & freed Venezuela in 1821 and then marched south into Ecuador .
6. In the city of Guayaquil he met with San Martin who was leading the troops in Southern Latin America.
I. San Martin Struggled in the South
1. Jose San Martin (1778-1850) was in Spain fighting Napoleon when the
Latin American revolts broke out. He rushed home to Argentina to fight.
2. He was able to command a Creole army there and he led the fight to free Southern Latin America.
3. Argentina declared independence in 1816 but the Spanish loomed near in Chile and Peru. San Martin led an army across the Andes Mountains to Chile where he won many battles and freed the country.
4. He then led his army north by sea to Lima, Peru in 1821. He drove the Spanish army into the mountains in Peru but needed a much larger army to defeat them.
J. The Spaniards were finally defeated.
1. San Martin and Bolivar met in Guayaquil and Bolivar was a much more dynamic leader. San Martin wished for monarchies in Latin America but Bolivar wanted republics to be dominated by the Creoles.
2. It was obvious to both that one leader must lead the Latin American
forces. No one knows exactly what was said or why these things happen but Bolivar was to command the army.
3. San Martin sailed for Europe and died in almost obscurity in 1850.
4. Bolivar followed the Spanish with the combined armies into the Andes and defeated the Spanish at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. South America was totally independent! ! !
N. Foreign Interests Dominated Latin America's Economies
I. Latin America had never been colonies so they were able to keep their newly won independence.
2. The Monroe Doctrine
a. Britain and the US were determined to keep France and Spain from returning to power in Latin America.
b. In 1823, President James Momoe, announced that "the American continents. ..are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. "
c. Alone, the US could not have enforced this decree but Britain also had a great interest in Latin America.
3. After winning independence many Latin American countries began trading with Britain rather than Spain.
4. British banks, businesses and investors quickly invested heavily in South America.
5. The US and Britain were the only rivals but the US really only traded mostly farm products. Britain focused on factory products and there was no DIRECT rivalry .
Chapter 23
Section 4
IV. Reform and Revolution Swept Europe
A. France Overthrew Bourbon King
1. In 1830, Charles X decided to ignore everyone and rule as an absolute monarch.
2. He tried to revoke the powers of the Chamber of Deputies and riots broke out in Paris.
3. Liberals and radicals worked together to rid France of this King. Charles was forced into exile in Great Britain.
4. Louis Phillipe was Charles cousin and was given the throne. He promised to rule with the elected bodies and with liberal reforms first and foremost.
5. He ruled until 1848 when another riot broke out.
B.Britain's Middle Class Won the Right to Vote
1. Reform Bill of 1832 was a revolutionary ideal for the liberals in Britain.
2. This bill set up new districts for electing members of Parliament.
3. The old districts were outdated and did not include newer cities such as Manchester and Sheffield. Many of them were old empty fields! ! !
4. More men were also granted the right to vote. Now men who paid a certain amount of rent were also able to vote, not only those who owned property.
5. Nearly all middle-class men had the right to vote in Great Britain but this ~ was still less than 20% of the population.
C. The Working Class had little Power
1. The working class still wanted more political influence.
2. As the Industrial Revolution gained strength the common worker had more food, money and clothes. These workers then began to organize themselves.
3. Factories spread across Europe and the working class grew immensely. Frankfurt, Cologne, and Milan were now industrialized.
D. 1848 Was A Year Of Revolutions
1. The working class grew tired of the Congress of Vienna's rules and Metternich's solutions.
2. Nation-states quickly replaced old-fashioned empires.
3. In the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies there was a revolution that quickly spread over the next 4 months to 50 other such places in Europe.
4. Britain and Russia were the only two places that did not have a revolution in 1848.
5. In France, the revolutionaries decided on a democracy.
6. In Hungary, they wanted a Hungarian nation-state separate from Austria.
7. German states wished for a united Germany.
8. The ruling monarchs were caught by surprise and gave into many demands immediately. Frederick William IV agreed to a democratically elected Parliament. Austria lost many holdings in Italy and Hungary.
9. Metternich resigned and felt that the days of the old monarchs that he loved so much were over.
10. With a wavering by the revolutionaries and the rebels the rulers regained strength and used their armies to begin a counterrevolution.
11. Austrian armies crushed rebellions. The German Parliament disappeared.
12. By 1849 the rulers were back in control and Europe returned to its 1848 status!
13. The changes were not dead and over and over there would be cries for independence, representation, and freedom!
E. France Again Overthrew its King
1. Radicals called for reform in France and tried to establish a democratic government.
2. King Louis Phillipe refused to listen to the Chamber of Deputies in the late 1840s and the Parisian working classes rose up in anger in 1848.
3. Almost overnight the King's government collapsed and a new government was installed.
4. Alphonse de Lamartine led the government and shouted "Down with royalty!" France was once again a republic.
5. Lamartine and Blanc led factions that opposed each other within the new government. The workshops for the unemployed were closed and caused bloody street battles in Paris.
6. More than 10,000 workers were killed in this upheaval.
F. A New Napoleon Came to Power
1. The violence led to a need for a new constitution. In 1848 this constitution called for an elected Parliament and President.
2. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was the nephew of the great Napoleon but he lacked so much that his uncle had to offer.
3. Peasants who wanted peace were behind him 100%. Nationalists saw him as a unification tool.
4.He swore to uphold the constitution and be faithful to the Republic, just as his uncle had.
5. In 1851 he broke this oath, just as his uncle had, and dissolved Parliament and declared to be the Emperor of France.
6. An election in 1851, in which ALL men had the right to vote, approved in his actions by a 92% vote. He then took the title of Emperor Napoleon ill.
7. Why did the country allow this? Read page 543.
8. Metternich was astounded at this revolution in France and assumed that Napoleon would fall.
9. Napoleon ruled France for 20 years. He proved that democracy was a form of government that could destroy itself!