Commandment one:

“I am your topic, thy subject, and thou shalt chase no other rabbits in this paper…for I, your topic, thy subject, am a jealous topic.”

The writing process generally begins with prewriting, which includes observing, journaling, gathering information, brainstorming, asking “what if” questions, mapping, clustering, defining your topic, choosing your audience, deciding on your purpose, and outlining.

Each essay should be developed around a thesis statement, or a statement of controlling purpose. What will this paper be about? The thesis statement will help you stay on the right track as you write your essay and should:

· Express the main idea

· Tell what you will accomplish in the paper

· Indicate your organizational pattern

· Reflect your tone and point of view

Here are some hints for writing and using a thesis statement (Kinneavy and Warriner):

· Develop the thesis statement from the information you have gathered. What main idea do you see?

· Check your thesis statement for both a limited topic and your main idea about it. Your thesis statement must answer both questions--What’s my topic? and What about the topic?

· Be clear and specific.

Bad thesis statement: The human brain is interesting. (fuzzy topic, too broad)

Bad thesis statement: The brain has two sides. (limited topic but no main idea about the topic)

Formulaic thesis statement: This paper will discuss the different functions of the two sides of the human brain.

Better thesis statement: The brain has two sides with different functions.

More interesting thesis statement: While it’s true that the brain’s two sides have different functions, they work together, not in conflict.

Bad thesis statement: Lasers are a new technology. (too broad, no main idea)

Formulaic thesis statement: I will define laser technology, review the history of lasers in the field of medicine, and describe the many ways doctors in various specialties are using lasers to heal the sick.

More interesting thesis statement: Lasers have an amazing variety of applications in such fields as manufacturing, communications, and entertainment. It is in the field of medicine, however, that lasers have had perhaps their most important and dramatic effects.

After you have narrowed your topic, gathered your ideas, and written your thesis statement, you need to spend some time arranging your main points. Wilbers equates writing to block-building—“your basic activity remained the same: fitting individual pieces into some type of coherent whole” (166). Writing is a matter of arrangement—putting words into sentences, sentences into paragraphs and paragraphs into an essay or narrative.

Here are some common ways to order ideas:

Type of Order	Definition
Chronological	Order the events as they happen in time, such as telling a story, explaining a process, writing a biography, or describing a historical event
Spatial	Describe objects according to location, such as near to far, outside to inside, left to right, top to bottom
Importance	Order details or points from least to most important or vice versa
Logical	Classify items by groups
Cause and Effect	Analyze connections—why something happened, and what the result was
Comparison and Contrast	Explore the similarities and differences between two objects or ideas

Strunk and White suggest making the paragraph the unit of composition.

The paragraph is a convenient unit; it serves all forms of literary work….

Ordinarily, a subject requires division into topics, each of which should be

dealt with in a paragraph. The object of treating each topic in a paragraph

by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of each paragraph

is a signal that a new step in the development of the subject has been reached….

As a rule, begin each paragraph either with a sentence that suggests the topic

or with a sentence that helps the transition. If a paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what precedes, or its function as a part of the whole,

may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase

(again, therefore, for the same reason) in the first sentence. Sometimes, however,

it is expedient to get into the topic slowly, by way of a sentence or two of

introduction or transition (15-16).

A paragraph should have unity—all sentences should work together to express or support one main idea, which is usually stated in the thesis statement. A paragraph should also have coherence—all ideas are sensibly arranged and clearly connected.

The same techniques you use in creating paragraph unity and coherence work for creating unity in longer pieces of writing. To ensure that an essay has unity, make sure each paragraph is related to your main idea and that all your supporting details in fact support that idea as well as the main idea of the paragraph in which they appear. The paragraphs of a longer piece of writing should also flow smoothly from one another and be logically connected.

Commandment two:

Thou shall not write in long, rambling or short, choppy sentences.

The basic structure of an English sentence is a subject followed by a verb. But following this pattern all the time makes your writing lifeless. As Wilbers says:

Writing without subordinate elements is like speaking in a loud voice,

without subtlety or variation, just as allowing your sentences to sprawl

out of control, without shape or rhythm, can be compared to going

without shaving or washing your hair (68).

To avoid choppy or otherwise monotonous sentences, vary the beginnings of your sentences as well as the type and length of sentences. (See below for an explanation of sentence types.)

Short, choppy writing sounds like a first-grade reader:

Let me introduce my best friend. Her name is Susan. She is a high-school student. She attends Parkview High School. Parkview High School is located in Lilburn, Georgia. She has one brother. She likes to play basketball. She also likes to play tennis. She enjoys white-water rafting. She does not play but likes to watch football and soccer.

By combining sentences, you make writing more rhythmic and interesting:

My best friend, Susan, attends Parkview High School, which is located in Lilburn, Georgia. She has one brother. Susan plays tennis and basketball, and she enjoys white-water rafting. When she is not participating in sports herself, you will find her watching football and soccer.

Now the paragraph has a variety of sentence beginnings, sentence lengths, and sentence types. Wilbers suggests: “More advanced writers…attend to how various sentence structures sound in relation to each other. For them, writing involves creating sentence structures that not only connect their thoughts but produce a distinct rhythm and flow (76).”

Parallelism is another way to create music or rhythm in writing. Parallelism involves balancing words or groups of words that have the same function in a sentence by giving them the same structure.

Not parallel: Jack and Jill need sympathy and to be noticed.

Parallel: Jack and Jill need sympathy and attention.

Not parallel: Students attend school for nine months and are vacationing for three months.

Parallel: Students attend school for nine months and vacation for three months.

A Quick Review of Sentence Types

There are four types of sentences: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex.

Simple sentences are comprised of one independent clause. (A clause has one subject and verb.)

She has one brother.

Compound sentences have two independent clauses, which are joined by a comma and a conjunction or a semicolon.

Susan plays tennis and basketball, and she enjoys white-water rafting.

Complex sentences have one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. A subordinate clause cannot stand by itself as a complete sentence although it has a subject and a verb. (The subordinate clauses are underlined in the examples below.)

My best friend, Susan, attends Parkview High School, which is located in Lilburn, Georgia.

When she is not participating in sports herself, you will find her watching football and soccer.

Compound-complex sentences have at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. They will also contain a comma and a conjunction or a semicolon.

Susan plays tennis and basketball; when she is not participating in sports herself, you will find her watching football and soccer.

Commandment three:

Thou shall not use generic language in vain

for thy instructor will not leave a paper unpunished which uses vague vocabulary.

One way to clarify writing is to choose your words carefully. Proper word choice, or diction, involves identifying words that say precisely what you mean. As Strunk and White say, “Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract” (21).

Vague: It changed the appearance of the landscape.

Specific: The tornado destroyed everything in its path—houses were leveled, trees were uprooted, and Farmer Martin’s cow was stranded on top of the Conoco station.

Vague: We had a period of unfavorable circumstances.

Specific: My wife lost her job.

An old adage writing teachers have used for centuries applies here: don’t tell the reader, show the reader. One of the best ways to avoid vagueness is to use good imagery (appeal to the five senses.)

It was a fancy room. (Telling)

“The dining room to which Ivan conducted him was in many ways remarkable. There was a medieval magnificence about it; it suggested a baronial hall of feudal times, with oaken panels, its high ceiling, its vast refactory table where two-score men could sit down to eat. About the hall were mounted heads of many animals….” (Showing)

The second example, which is from Richard Connell’s short story “The Most Dangerous Game,” contains words of substance. The reader can visualize General Zaroff’s dining room in detail.

Another way to inject specificity into your writing is to make sentences tell stories. Action arouses curiosity, and “movement of any sort raises questions, and we want to know the answers” (Wilbers, 2000, 49). Like any other form of narration, sentences need characters and actions. Rather than saying “A sudden decline in the stock market occurred,” write “The stock market crashed.” Rather than “The result of the examination of soil samples was the discovery of an incredibly rich vein of ore,” write “When the engineers examined the soil samples, they discovered a rich vein of ore.”

Writers should avoid “empty” modifiers because they do nothing more than express approval or disapproval, leaving the reader to wonder about the extent and reason for the feelings.

Empty Modifiers

good boring really very nice awesome

exciting great fine fun super totally

pretty awful cute interesting fantastic wonderful

terrible bad

Three additional suggestions regarding diction are worth noting:

· When you are looking for vivid vocabulary, do not just pick words from a thesaurus if you have never used them before. It will be obvious to your reader if you misuse a word in context.

· Synonyms have different connotations (personal, emotional meanings) so you must choose carefully. Think about the different associations with these synonyms for red: beefy, scarlet, rosy.

· Most readers prefer natural language. If you try to sound too academic, you come off sounding artificial and pompous.

Commandment four:

Remember thy introduction and conclusion, to keep them effective.

Your most important paragraph is your first one…. In expository writing,

a good lead provides the information and context needed by the reader

to understand the subject or purpose. In persuasive writing, a good lead

prepares the reader intellectually and emotionally to accept the writer’s

point of view…. In narrative writing, a good lead invites the reader into

the story by offering an intriguing scene or introducing an interesting

character. The purpose of your lead is to convince your reader that the

text that follows is worth the time it will take to read it. (Wilbers, 180-181)

Introductions should be creative. They should grab the reader’s attention while at the same time clearly communicating your topic and setting the tone for the composition. It is a good idea to mention your main points—an introduction serves as a roadmap for your reader to follow.

Here are a few techniques for writing introductions:

· Begin with an example or anecdote

· State a startling or interesting fact

· Use an appropriate quotation

· Ask a question

· Give some background information

· Provide a vivid, detailed description

· Begin with a simple statement of your thesis

In all types of writing, your conclusion carries special emphasis.

It invites the audience to consider the significance of what has transpired

by placing everything that preceded it in a new light. The questions

“Why did it end here?” and “What does it mean?” are closely linked.

(Wilbers, 185)

An effective conclusion should stress the significance of your topic and bring the essay to a close. Conclusions should not simply restate your main points and certainly should not introduce new ideas.

Here are some techniques for writing conclusions:

· Restate the main idea in different words. Try to find a newer, stronger wording.

· Summarize your major points.

· Close with a final idea or example.

· Make a final comment on the topic (a thoughtful observation, a personal reaction, or a vision of the future)

· Call on your reader’s to take action, especially in a persuasive essay.

· Refer back to your introduction. This is a form of parallelism or bringing the paper full circle.

Commandment five:

Honor your father grammar and mother structure

so that your grades may be increased on thy assignments, which the instructor, your judge, gives you.

Although the ideas and development of your paper are of paramount importance, the mechanics of writing—spelling, punctuation, correct citation of sources, format of the paper, etc.—should not be neglected. Proper English usage gives a writer credibility with his or her audience; poor grammar and mechanics can obscure meaning and distract readers.

Writing conventions to consider:

· Complete, correct sentences

· No run-on sentences (no punctuation to separate independent clauses)

· No comma splices (comma used instead of semicolon, conjunction, or period)

· No fragments (unless it is obvious that you used them intentionally for effect)

· Control over grammar

· Subjects and verbs agree

· Pronouns agree with their antecedents

· Verb tense is consistent

· Control over punctuation

· Correct spelling

· Correct capitalization

· Correct paragraph breaks

· Correct citation of sources (if applicable)

Commandment six:

Thou shall not write a skeletal paper.

Writing involves a fundamental two-step pattern: make an assertion then support it with strong, relevant examples and detail. To help you decide how much detail to include, ask yourself “How much does the reader already know?” and “What needs to be pointed out or made explicit?” In general, it is better to err on the side of giving too much support. Explain enough background so that someone unfamiliar with your topic can understand what you are talking about. A good guideline is for every statement of fact, you should have at least one statement of elaboration and interpretation.

Fully develop each main point using:

· pertinent reasons

· examples

· statistics

· concrete details

· anecdotes

· analysis

· quotations (correctly document your sources)

· analogy and metaphor

Beware of circular reasoning—trying to prove a statement by repeating it in other words.

Circular reasoning: I like basketball because it is my favorite sport.

Supported reasoning: I like basketball because it is fast-paced and is physically and mentally challenging.

Use the following guidelines to correct unsupported statements (Blau, 409):

• Look for claims (statements that will make the reader ask “why?”).

Claim: Space exploration should continue.

• Provide facts, reasons, and examples to support each claim. If you cannot support a claim, it should be deleted from your paper.

Supported Claim: Space exploration should continue because it satisfies a human longing to investigate the unknown, and space explorers might discover new supplies of resources that are becoming scarce on Earth.

• Add transitional words and phrases to help your reader understand your thought process.

Also remember to balance the development of your main points. You should not have a page and a half of explanation of one point and only a few sentences about your other points.

Commandment seven:

Thou shall not use rigid, formulaic organization.

Formulaic organization means:

· the three ideas stated in the thesis are simply repeated as three topic sentences

· the conclusion simply restates the thesis

· sequence words are limited to things like: first, second, next, finally, my next point,“In this paper I’m going to tell you…”, etc.

More mature writers find creative, natural ways to connect ideas.

The key to creating coherence is using transitional language to connect your ideas and paragraphs.

The process of reading is, by nature, linear and sequential.

In other words, every sentence operates in the context of what

precedes it. Conversely, the thought of every sentence is developed,

elaborated, limited, or in some way modified by what comes after it.

The coherence of your text depends on how carefully you make

connections, not only within your sentences, but also between your

sentences and between your paragraphs. (Wilbers, 197)

There are two basic techniques for making the relationships among ideas clear:

· Include transitional words (see list below)

· Use “word chains”—pronouns, synonyms, and repeated words—to show that statements in separate sentences refer to the same things.

Maria is a talented guitarist. She plays both a classical guitar and a steel guitar. (pronouns)

And then, in 1938, a trawler fishing off the coast of South Africa brought up a very strange fish….She noticed this peculiar fish…. (synonyms)

Earth has a natural satellite called the moon. However, the Earth is not the only planet that is orbited by satellites. (repeated word)

Signal Words and Phrases

1. Continuation Signals (Warning—there are more ideas to come):

and again a final reason last of all

moreover other too also

and finally furthermore likewise next

secondly with another first of all

in addition more one reason similarily

2. Change-of-direction Signals (Watch out—we’re doubling back):

although despite however in spite of

the opposite rather while different from

but in contrast nevertheless on the contrary

still though conversely yet

even though instead of otherwise on the other hand

3. Sequence Signals (There is an order to these ideas):

first, second, third in the first place then before

into last since later

now earlier for one thing next

while until always during

4. Illustration Signals (Here’s what the principal means in reality):

for example specifically for instance to illustrate

that is much like in the same way similar to

5. Cause, Condition, or Result Signals:

because for in order that while but as

resulting from therefore so that yet due to if

consequently from so then that of

whether until unless thus since

6. Spatial Signals (tell “where”):

north out across right middle over

south in next to toward away below

east opposite about on adjacent this

west close to inside around beyond behind

between near outside beside under

far there above alongside in front of

7. Comparison-Contrast Signals (point to similarities and differences):

and either more than even best/worst

as much as but yet opposite though or

different than however same then like

better/worse analogous to although while less/most

too rather

8. Conclusion Signals (Announce the end is coming):

as a result in conclusion consequently in summary

last of all finally therefore

Commandment eight:

Thou shall not plagiarize.

Plagiarism involves using the ideas or writings of another person as your own. It constitutes a form of intellectual larceny and is considered cheating.

There are some easy ways to avoid plagiarism:

• Take careful notes and clearly identify the source of the information you put in your notes. Two suggested methods of note taking are:

§ Use source cards—cards containing the bibliographic information for a source--and label each source card with a number (1, 2, 3, etc.). When you write information on note cards, simply put the source card number at the top of each card.

• If you write notes on notebook paper, print notes from a website, or copy pages from a book, put all the bibliographic source information at the top of each page.

• Use correct references in your paper (footnotes, parenthetical references, etc.).

• Include a bibliography or works cited list at the end of your paper

Here are some basic guidelines for what should be cited in an academic paper:

• Document all direct quotes.

• Document information you have paraphrased or summarized.

• Do not document common knowledge, which means the information can be found in several different sources. Hard facts—like dates, people, or places—are usually common knowledge, but carefully check your facts. Some sources may not agree.

Commandment nine:

Thou shall not be overly wordy or repetitive.

As Strunk and White say, writers should “omit needless words…. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all sentences short and avoid all detail and treat subjects only in outline, but that every word tell” (23).

Unnecessary words weigh down and deaden writing, making it seem laborious and cumbersome to read. “As a rule, the more economically you use language, the more powerfully you will deliver your message” (Wilbers, 11).